diff --git a/CLAUDE.md b/CLAUDE.md
index 6eb0760..f31bd21 100644
--- a/CLAUDE.md
+++ b/CLAUDE.md
@@ -4,70 +4,123 @@ This file provides guidance to Claude Code (claude.ai/code) when working with co
 
 ## Project Overview
 
-`mml` is a Ruby gem that provides MathML 3 and MathML 4 XML parsing and serialization. It maps MathML elements into Ruby model classes using the `lutaml-model` framework. Part of the [Plurimath](https://github.com/plurimath/mml) ecosystem.
+`mml` is a Ruby gem that provides MathML 2, MathML 3, and MathML 4 XML parsing and serialization. It maps MathML elements into Ruby model classes using the `lutaml-model` framework. Part of the [Plurimath](https://github.com/plurimath/mml) ecosystem.
 
 ## Commands
 
 ```bash
-rake                    # Run specs + rubocop (default task)
-bundle exec rspec       # Run tests
-bundle exec rspec spec/mml_spec.rb:42  # Run single test by line
-bundle exec rspec --only-failures      # Run only previously failing tests
-bundle exec rubocop     # Lint
-bundle exec rubocop -a  # Auto-fix lint issues
-bin/console             # IRB with gem loaded
+rake                                # Run specs + rubocop (default task)
+bundle exec rspec                   # Run all tests
+bundle exec rspec spec/mml/v3/msub_spec.rb:14  # Run single test by line
+bundle exec rspec --only-failures   # Previously failing tests only
+bundle exec rubocop                 # Lint
+bundle exec rubocop -a              # Auto-fix lint issues
+bin/console                         # IRB with gem loaded
 ```
 
 ## Versioned Architecture
 
-**MathML 3 vs MathML 4:** The gem maintains separate class hierarchies for MathML 3 (`Mml::V3::`) and MathML 4 (`Mml::V4::`). Users must reference the versioned namespace explicitly — no backward-compat aliases.
+The gem maintains **three** separate class hierarchies: `Mml::V2::` (MathML 2), `Mml::V3::` (MathML 3), and `Mml::V4::` (MathML 4). Users must reference the versioned namespace explicitly — no backward-compat aliases.
 
 ```ruby
-Mml.parse(input)                    # Default: MathML 3
-Mml.parse(input, version: 3)       # Explicit MathML 3
-Mml.parse(input, version: 4)        # MathML 4 with intent/arg attributes
+Mml.parse(input)                # Default: MathML 3
+Mml.parse(input, version: 2)   # MathML 2
+Mml.parse(input, version: 3)   # Explicit MathML 3
+Mml.parse(input, version: 4)   # MathML 4 with intent/arg attributes
 ```
 
 **Directory structure:**
-- `lib/mml/v3/` — MathML 3 element classes (original)
-- `lib/mml/v4/` — MathML 4 element classes (intent/arg added, deprecated attrs removed)
+- `lib/mml/base/` — version-agnostic element modules, mixed into each version's class via `include Base::XYZ`. The single source of truth for the XML mapping DSL.
+- `lib/mml/v2/`, `lib/mml/v3/`, `lib/mml/v4/` — per-version class declarations (each ~3 lines: declare class, mix in base module, register).
 
-**Key difference:** MathML 4 adds `intent`, `arg`, `displaystyle`, and `scriptlevel` attributes as universal presentation attributes for accessibility markup.
+**Key difference (V3 → V4):** MathML 4 adds `intent`, `arg`, `displaystyle`, and `scriptlevel` as universal presentation attributes for accessibility markup; removes some deprecated attributes.
 
 **No hidden delegation:** The `Mml` module does not alias or delegate constants. Use `Mml::V3::Math`, `Mml::V4::Mi`, etc. directly.
 
 ## Entry Points
 
-- `Mml.parse(input, version: N)` — parse XML, returns `Mml::V3::Math` or `Mml::V4::Math` object graph
+- `Mml.parse(input, version: N)` — parse XML, returns `Mml::V{2,3,4}::Math` object graph
 - `Mml::V3.parse(input)` / `Mml::V4.parse(input)` — version-specific parsing
 - `Mml::V4::Math.from_xml(input)` — directly parse with v4 classes
 - Call `to_xml` on any element to serialize back
 
-## Pattern
+## Element Mapping Pattern
 
-Each MathML element is a `Mml::V3::` or `Mml::V4::` class inheriting from `Lutaml::Model::Serializable` with an `xml do...end` DSL block. Two element types:
-- **Leaf elements** (e.g., `Mi`, `Mn`, `Mo`): use `map_content to: :value` for text content
-- **Container elements** (e.g., `Math`, `Mrow`, `Mfrac`): use `mixed_content` to accept arbitrary child elements
+Each MathML element is a `Lutaml::Model::Serializable` subclass with an `xml do...end` DSL block. The XML mapping lives in `lib/mml/base/<tag>.rb` as a module included into each version's class (e.g., `Mml::V3::Msub` includes `Mml::Base::Msub`).
 
-**CommonAttributes:** A `no_root` Lutaml model imported into container elements via `import_model`. It dynamically creates `#{tag}_value` attributes for each tag in `Configuration::SUPPORTED_TAGS`. Classes that receive it are listed in `Configuration::COMMON_ATTRIBUTES_CLASSES`.
+### Content model — `mixed_content` vs `ordered` vs `map_content`
 
-**Autoloading:** Each version (`lib/mml/v3.rb`, `lib/mml/v4.rb`) autoloads its element classes. `CommonAttributes` is required after all classes exist, then `update_attributes` mixes it into the configured classes.
+This is the most important decision when adding or editing an element. Pick based on the **schema** (see `schemas/mathml3/`, `schemas/mathml4/`, `reference-docs/mathml-source/`):
 
-**Namespace:** Both versions use the same URI (`http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML`) — MathML 4 chose backward compatibility over a new namespace.
+| Schema content model                              | Use                                  | Examples                       |
+|---------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|--------------------------------|
+| True mixed `(#PCDATA \| mglyph \| malignmark)*`   | `mixed_content` + `map_content`      | `Mi`, `Mn`, `Mo`, `Ms`, `Mtext`|
+| Element-only (`ImpliedMrow`, `<xs:sequence>`, etc.) | `ordered`                          | `Msub`, `Mfrac`, `Mrow`, `Math`, `Munder`, `Mfenced`, `Msgroup`, … |
+
+**Why this matters:** lutaml-model's `each_mixed_content` iteration exposes all children to consumers (Plurimath's translator does positional indexing like `children[0]`, `children[1]` for `msub`/`mfrac`/etc.).
+- Under `mixed_content`, whitespace between elements is yielded as a String child, shifting positional indices.
+- Under `ordered`, whitespace-only text nodes are skipped — only elements and non-whitespace text are yielded.
+
+If you mistakenly use `mixed_content` on an element-only schema element, downstream consumers see phantom whitespace children and silently misinterpret the tree (e.g., render `<msub><mi>t</mi><mn>90</mn></msub>` with whitespace between children as base=whitespace, sub=`<mi>t</mi>`, dropping `<mn>90</mn>`).
+
+**Verification workflow for any element edit:**
+```bash
+grep -A15 'name="<tag>"' schemas/mathml3/mathml3-presentation.xsd schemas/mathml3/mathml3-common.xsd
+grep -A3 '<tag>\s*=\s*element' schemas/mathml4/mathml4-core.rnc schemas/mathml4/mathml4-presentation.rnc
+```
+
+If the schema says `ImpliedMrow`, `MathExpression, MathExpression`, `MstackExpression*`, `TableRowExpression*`, etc. (any element-only sequence), use `ordered`. If it says `(#PCDATA | mglyph | malignmark)*`, use `mixed_content` + `map_content` + `map_element` for the inline children.
+
+### Token elements are the only true mixed content
+
+Per MathML schema, token elements (`mi`, `mn`, `mo`, `ms`, `mtext`) accept `(#PCDATA | mglyph | malignmark)*` — text interleaved with inline elements. They use:
+
+```ruby
+attribute :value, :string, collection: true           # collection required for mixed_content
+attribute :mglyph_value, :mglyph, collection: true
+attribute :malignmark_value, :malignmark, collection: true
+
+xml do
+  element "<tag>"
+  mixed_content
+  map_content to: :value
+  map_element "mglyph", to: :mglyph_value
+  map_element "malignmark", to: :malignmark_value
+end
+```
+
+`value` is a `String` **collection** (Array) because text can be split by intervening inline elements (e.g., `<mi>x<malignmark/>y</mi>` → `["x", "y"]`).
+
+### CommonAttributes
+
+A `no_root` Lutaml model imported into container elements via `import_model`. It dynamically creates `#{tag}_value` attributes for each tag in `Configuration::SUPPORTED_TAGS`. Classes that receive it are listed in `Configuration::COMMON_ATTRIBUTES_CLASSES`.
+
+### Per-file registration
+
+Each `lib/mml/v{2,3,4}/<tag>.rb` ends with `Configuration.register_model(Klass, id: :tag)` so the type is registered as soon as the file is loaded (eager via `require_relative` at the bottom of each version file).
+
+**Namespace:** All versions use the same URI (`http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML`) — MathML 4 chose backward compatibility over a new namespace.
+
+## Adapter
+
+`Mml.default_adapter` returns `:oga` under Opal, otherwise delegates to `Lutaml::Model::Config.xml_adapter_type` (defaults to `:nokogiri`). Specs pin `:nokogiri` in `spec_helper.rb`. Users can override globally via `Lutaml::Model::Config`.
 
 ## Spec Structure
 
-- `spec/mml_spec.rb` — tests `Mml::V3` and `Mml::V4` with separate fixture directories
-- `spec/fixtures/with_namespace/` — v3 fixtures (MathML 3)
-- `spec/fixtures/with_namespace_prefix/` — v3 fixtures with namespace prefix
-- `spec/fixtures/v4/` — v4 fixtures (MathML 4 with intent attributes)
+- `spec/mml/v2/`, `spec/mml/v3/`, `spec/mml/v4/` — per-version element specs (round-trip + attribute preservation)
+- `spec/mml/v3_spec.rb`, `spec/mml/v4_spec.rb` — whole-testsuite round-trip tests against `spec/fixtures/mml3-testsuite/` and `spec/fixtures/mmlcore-testsuite/`
+- `spec/mml/ordered_content_spec.rb` — regression specs locking in the mixed_content vs ordered distinction (whitespace handling + token element inline children)
+- `spec/mml/adapter_configuration_spec.rb` — adapter delegation
+- `spec/context_support_spec.rb`, `spec/lutaml_default_register_spec.rb` — registry/context behavior
+- `spec/fixtures/mml2-testsuite/`, `mml3-testsuite/`, `mmlcore-testsuite/` — W3C test suites (submodules)
+- `spec/fixtures/v2/`, `v4/` — version-specific fixtures
 
-Specs use the `:nokogiri` Lutaml adapter (configured in `spec_helper.rb`). Runtime uses `:ox` adapter by default.
+Specs use `canon`'s `be_xml_equivalent_to` matcher with the `:spec_friendly` profile (whitespace-tolerant). When adding a regression spec for an ordering bug, **explicitly test the inter-element-whitespace scenario** — the suite's whitespace tolerance masks positional bugs.
 
 ## Key Dependencies
 
-- `lutaml-model` (~ 0.8.0) — data mapper framework; all element classes inherit from `Lutaml::Model::Serializable`
-- `moxml` — XML parsing library (uses `:ox` adapter by default)
+- `lutaml-model` (~> 0.8.0) — data mapper framework; all element classes inherit from `Lutaml::Model::Serializable`
+- `moxml` — XML parsing backbone (adapter selected via `Lutaml::Model::Config`)
 - `canon` — XML comparison for specs
 
 ## Conventions
@@ -77,3 +130,10 @@ Specs use the `:nokogiri` Lutaml adapter (configured in `spec_helper.rb`). Runti
 - CI workflows are auto-generated by Cimas — do not edit manually
 - `Gemfile.lock` is gitignored; dependencies come from the gemspec
 - Type signatures exist in `sig/mml.rbs`
+
+## Reference Materials
+
+- `schemas/mathml2/`, `schemas/mathml3/`, `schemas/mathml4/` — official W3C schemas (XSD for 2/3, RelaxNG for 4). **Authoritative** source for content models and attribute lists.
+- `reference-docs/mathml-source/` — W3C spec source XML (presentation-markup.xml, validation-grammar.xml, etc.)
+
+When deciding whether an element should have `mixed_content`, `ordered`, or `map_content`, **always** verify against the schema first.
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/maction.rb b/lib/mml/base/maction.rb
index c862489..b3484b0 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/maction.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/maction.rb
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "maction"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/math.rb b/lib/mml/base/math.rb
index 4808b8d..973f9b4 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/math.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/math.rb
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "math"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute :display, to: :display
             map_attribute "mode", to: :mode
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/menclose.rb b/lib/mml/base/menclose.rb
index 01a9d59..cca1660 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/menclose.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/menclose.rb
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "menclose"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/merror.rb b/lib/mml/base/merror.rb
index c06c0fc..dc3721b 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/merror.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/merror.rb
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "merror"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mfenced.rb b/lib/mml/base/mfenced.rb
index 747912f..4f3e8c6 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mfenced.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mfenced.rb
@@ -10,16 +10,13 @@ def self.included(klass)
           attribute :mathbackground, :string
           attribute :separators, :string
           attribute :mathcolor, :string
-          attribute :content, :string, collection: true
           attribute :close, :string
           attribute :open, :string
 
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mfenced"
-            mixed_content
-
-            map_content to: :content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "separators", to: :separators, render_empty: true
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mfrac.rb b/lib/mml/base/mfrac.rb
index 08f1941..04b0663 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mfrac.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mfrac.rb
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mfrac"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mfraction.rb b/lib/mml/base/mfraction.rb
index a90aabf..267b95c 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mfraction.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mfraction.rb
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mfraction"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mi.rb b/lib/mml/base/mi.rb
index 116a840..537f47d 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mi.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mi.rb
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           attribute :mathsize, :string
           attribute :mathvariant, :string
           attribute :mglyph_value, :mglyph, collection: true
+          attribute :malignmark_value, :malignmark, collection: true
           attribute :lang, :string
 
           xml do
@@ -27,6 +28,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
             map_attribute "mathvariant", to: :mathvariant
             map_attribute "xml:lang", to: :lang
             map_element "mglyph", to: :mglyph_value
+            map_element "malignmark", to: :malignmark_value
           end
         end
       end
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mlabeledtr.rb b/lib/mml/base/mlabeledtr.rb
index bc243f6..37f552f 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mlabeledtr.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mlabeledtr.rb
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mlabeledtr"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "columnalign", to: :columnalign
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mlongdiv.rb b/lib/mml/base/mlongdiv.rb
index 7df85d9..56a624a 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mlongdiv.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mlongdiv.rb
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mlongdiv"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "longdivstyle", to: :longdivstyle
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mmultiscripts.rb b/lib/mml/base/mmultiscripts.rb
index 24af427..144985a 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mmultiscripts.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mmultiscripts.rb
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mmultiscripts"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mn.rb b/lib/mml/base/mn.rb
index a1a927a..e2152cf 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mn.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mn.rb
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           attribute :mathvariant, :string
           attribute :mathsize, :string
           attribute :mglyph_value, :mglyph, collection: true
+          attribute :malignmark_value, :malignmark, collection: true
 
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
@@ -25,6 +26,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
             map_attribute "mathvariant", to: :mathvariant
             map_attribute "mathsize", to: :mathsize
             map_element "mglyph", to: :mglyph_value
+            map_element "malignmark", to: :malignmark_value
           end
         end
       end
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mo.rb b/lib/mml/base/mo.rb
index 2217c24..c855e4a 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mo.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mo.rb
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ module Mo
       # Use fully qualified names (e.g., Mml::Namespace).
       def self.included(klass)
         klass.class_eval do
-          attribute :value, :string
+          attribute :value, :string, collection: true
           attribute :mathcolor, :string
           attribute :mathbackground, :string
           attribute :mathvariant, :string
@@ -34,11 +34,14 @@ def self.included(klass)
           attribute :indentshiftfirst, :string
           attribute :indentalignlast, :string
           attribute :indentshiftlast, :string
+          attribute :mglyph_value, :mglyph, collection: true
+          attribute :malignmark_value, :malignmark, collection: true
 
           # rubocop:disable Metrics/BlockLength
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mo"
+            mixed_content
 
             map_content to: :value
             map_attribute "form", to: :form
@@ -67,6 +70,8 @@ def self.included(klass)
             map_attribute "indentalignfirst", to: :indentalignfirst
             map_attribute "indentshiftfirst", to: :indentshiftfirst
             map_attribute "linebreakmultchar", to: :linebreakmultchar
+            map_element "mglyph", to: :mglyph_value
+            map_element "malignmark", to: :malignmark_value
           end
           # rubocop:enable Metrics/BlockLength
         end
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mover.rb b/lib/mml/base/mover.rb
index eaa4334..486299c 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mover.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mover.rb
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mover"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mpadded.rb b/lib/mml/base/mpadded.rb
index e6cc726..a8a0810 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mpadded.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mpadded.rb
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mpadded"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mphantom.rb b/lib/mml/base/mphantom.rb
index 5bc8a25..ba50a6f 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mphantom.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mphantom.rb
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mphantom"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mroot.rb b/lib/mml/base/mroot.rb
index 54fa563..6705569 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mroot.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mroot.rb
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mroot"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mrow.rb b/lib/mml/base/mrow.rb
index a31952b..94da843 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mrow.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mrow.rb
@@ -9,13 +9,11 @@ def self.included(klass)
         klass.class_eval do
           attribute :mathbackground, :string
           attribute :mathcolor, :string
-          attribute :content, :string, collection: true
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mrow"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
-            map_content to: :content
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
           end
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/ms.rb b/lib/mml/base/ms.rb
index 54c3504..30bbc32 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/ms.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/ms.rb
@@ -14,6 +14,8 @@ def self.included(klass)
           attribute :lquote, :string
           attribute :rquote, :string
           attribute :value, :string, collection: true
+          attribute :mglyph_value, :mglyph, collection: true
+          attribute :malignmark_value, :malignmark, collection: true
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "ms"
@@ -26,6 +28,8 @@ def self.included(klass)
             map_attribute "mathvariant", to: :mathvariant
             map_attribute "lquote", to: :lquote, render_empty: true
             map_attribute "rquote", to: :rquote, render_empty: true
+            map_element "mglyph", to: :mglyph_value
+            map_element "malignmark", to: :malignmark_value
           end
         end
       end
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mscarries.rb b/lib/mml/base/mscarries.rb
index 8652e66..b5d4843 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mscarries.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mscarries.rb
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mscarries"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "scriptsizemultiplier", to: :scriptsizemultiplier
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mscarry.rb b/lib/mml/base/mscarry.rb
index 6e64460..aa8cb81 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mscarry.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mscarry.rb
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mscarry"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/msgroup.rb b/lib/mml/base/msgroup.rb
index 8854052..44cc88e 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/msgroup.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/msgroup.rb
@@ -11,13 +11,11 @@ def self.included(klass)
           attribute :mathbackground, :string
           attribute :position, :integer
           attribute :shift, :integer
-          attribute :msgroup_text, :string, collection: true
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "msgroup"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
-            map_content to: :msgroup_text
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "position", to: :position
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/msqrt.rb b/lib/mml/base/msqrt.rb
index 72aeb31..7a90826 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/msqrt.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/msqrt.rb
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "msqrt"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/msrow.rb b/lib/mml/base/msrow.rb
index 1c96b43..5ad20ec 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/msrow.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/msrow.rb
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "msrow"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mstack.rb b/lib/mml/base/mstack.rb
index aeae8b3..9b920f7 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mstack.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mstack.rb
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mstack"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mstyle.rb b/lib/mml/base/mstyle.rb
index e6ac1fa..c0549e8 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mstyle.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mstyle.rb
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mstyle"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "scriptsizemultiplier", to: :scriptsizemultiplier
             map_attribute "scriptminsize", to: :scriptminsize
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/msub.rb b/lib/mml/base/msub.rb
index 986572c..41731b0 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/msub.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/msub.rb
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "msub"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "subscriptshift", to: :subscriptshift
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/msubsup.rb b/lib/mml/base/msubsup.rb
index 762caa7..6fc67cb 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/msubsup.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/msubsup.rb
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "msubsup"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/msup.rb b/lib/mml/base/msup.rb
index 3380ede..d333531 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/msup.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/msup.rb
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "msup"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mtable.rb b/lib/mml/base/mtable.rb
index 6052101..801f018 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mtable.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mtable.rb
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mtable"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mtd.rb b/lib/mml/base/mtd.rb
index 35d5768..8087dc0 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mtd.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mtd.rb
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mtd"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mtext.rb b/lib/mml/base/mtext.rb
index 4b83a90..62d2b32 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mtext.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mtext.rb
@@ -7,21 +7,26 @@ module Mtext
       # Use fully qualified names (e.g., Mml::Namespace).
       def self.included(klass)
         klass.class_eval do
-          attribute :value, :string
+          attribute :value, :string, collection: true
           attribute :mathcolor, :string
           attribute :mathbackground, :string
           attribute :mathvariant, :string
           attribute :mathsize, :string
+          attribute :mglyph_value, :mglyph, collection: true
+          attribute :malignmark_value, :malignmark, collection: true
 
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mtext"
+            mixed_content
 
             map_content to: :value
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "mathvariant", to: :mathvariant
             map_attribute "mathsize", to: :mathsize
+            map_element "mglyph", to: :mglyph_value
+            map_element "malignmark", to: :malignmark_value
           end
         end
       end
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/mtr.rb b/lib/mml/base/mtr.rb
index c7f7e46..564e5ce 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/mtr.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/mtr.rb
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "mtr"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/munder.rb b/lib/mml/base/munder.rb
index d731676..b2c00ed 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/munder.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/munder.rb
@@ -10,19 +10,17 @@ def self.included(klass)
           attribute :mathbackground, :string
           attribute :accentunder, :string
           attribute :mathcolor, :string
-          attribute :content, :string, collection: true
           attribute :align, :string
 
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "munder"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
             map_attribute "accentunder", to: :accentunder
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "align", to: :align
-            map_content to: :content
           end
         end
       end
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/munderover.rb b/lib/mml/base/munderover.rb
index c53eef4..f0baf08 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/munderover.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/munderover.rb
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "munderover"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "mathcolor", to: :mathcolor
             map_attribute "mathbackground", to: :mathbackground
diff --git a/lib/mml/base/semantics.rb b/lib/mml/base/semantics.rb
index 6975b22..7d7a982 100644
--- a/lib/mml/base/semantics.rb
+++ b/lib/mml/base/semantics.rb
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ def self.included(klass)
           xml do
             namespace Mml::Namespace
             element "semantics"
-            mixed_content
+            ordered
 
             map_attribute "definitionURL", to: :definition_url
             map_attribute "encoding", to: :semantics_encoding
diff --git a/spec/context_support_spec.rb b/spec/context_support_spec.rb
index 3f9bc2a..bba2fc9 100644
--- a/spec/context_support_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/context_support_spec.rb
@@ -145,7 +145,7 @@ class LegacyMi < Mml::V3::Mi
     math = Mml::V4.parse(xml, context: :custom_models)
 
     expect(math.mover_value.first).to be_a(MmlSubst::V4Mover)
-    expect(math.mover_value.first.mo_value.first.value).to eq("∫")
+    expect(math.mover_value.first.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["∫"])
     expect(math.mover_value.first.mi_value.first.value).to eq(["b"])
   ensure
     Mml::V4::Configuration.clear_custom_models
diff --git a/spec/mml/adapter_configuration_spec.rb b/spec/mml/adapter_configuration_spec.rb
index 63fa90d..4cbe4fb 100644
--- a/spec/mml/adapter_configuration_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/adapter_configuration_spec.rb
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@
     it "handles namespace-free XML with inline text content" do
       xml = "<math><mtext>hello world</mtext></math>"
       math = Mml::V3.parse(xml, namespace_exist: false)
-      expect(math.mtext_value.first.value).to eq("hello world")
+      expect(math.mtext_value.first.value).to eq(["hello world"])
     end
 
     it "handles multi-level nested elements without namespace" do
diff --git a/spec/mml/ordered_content_spec.rb b/spec/mml/ordered_content_spec.rb
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64982c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/spec/mml/ordered_content_spec.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
+# frozen_string_literal: true
+
+require "spec_helper"
+
+# Regression specs covering the mixed_content → ordered migration on
+# element-only content models. Under `mixed_content`, lutaml-model's
+# `each_mixed_content` yields inter-element whitespace as String children,
+# which breaks consumers that do positional indexing
+# (e.g., Plurimath's `msub_to_base` reads `children[0]` as the base).
+#
+# Under `ordered`, whitespace-only text nodes are skipped.
+# These specs assert that contract for each positional-index element.
+# If a base file drifts back to `mixed_content`, the corresponding spec
+# below will fail.
+
+# rubocop:disable RSpec/DescribeClass
+RSpec.describe "ordered content" do
+  def yielded_children(node)
+    children = []
+    node.each_mixed_content { |c| children << c }
+    children
+  end
+
+  def expect_no_whitespace_strings(node)
+    children = yielded_children(node)
+    offenders = children.select { |c| c.is_a?(String) && c.strip.empty? }
+    expect(offenders).to be_empty,
+                         "expected no whitespace-only String children, " \
+                         "got #{offenders.inspect} among #{children.inspect}"
+  end
+
+  shared_context "with namespace declared" do
+    let(:xmlns) { 'xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"' }
+  end
+
+  # rubocop:disable RSpec/EmptyExampleGroup
+  positional_specs = {
+    "msub" => ["<mi>t</mi>", "<mn>90</mn>"],
+    "msup" => ["<mi>t</mi>", "<mn>90</mn>"],
+    "msubsup" => ["<mi>t</mi>", "<mn>90</mn>", "<mn>2</mn>"],
+    "mfrac" => ["<mn>1</mn>", "<mn>2</mn>"],
+    "mroot" => ["<mi>x</mi>", "<mn>3</mn>"],
+    "mover" => ["<mi>x</mi>", "<mo>^</mo>"],
+    "munder" => ["<mi>x</mi>", "<mo>_</mo>"],
+    "munderover" => ["<mi>x</mi>", "<mo>_</mo>", "<mo>^</mo>"],
+  }
+
+  container_specs = {
+    "mrow" => ["<mi>a</mi>", "<mo>+</mo>", "<mi>b</mi>"],
+    "mfenced" => ["<mi>a</mi>", "<mi>b</mi>"],
+    "msgroup" => ["<mn>1</mn>", "<mn>2</mn>"],
+  }
+  # rubocop:enable RSpec/EmptyExampleGroup
+
+  positional_specs.merge(container_specs).each do |tag, children_xml|
+    [Mml::V3, Mml::V4].each do |version|
+      describe "#{version} #{tag} with whitespace between children" do
+        include_context "with namespace declared"
+
+        let(:inner) { children_xml.join("\n  ") }
+        let(:input) { "<math #{xmlns}><#{tag}>\n  #{inner}\n</#{tag}></math>" }
+        let(:math)  { version.parse(input) }
+        let(:node)  { math.public_send("#{tag}_value").first }
+
+        it "does not yield whitespace-only String children from each_mixed_content" do
+          expect_no_whitespace_strings(node)
+        end
+
+        it "round-trips the child elements" do
+          expect(math.to_xml).to be_xml_equivalent_to(input)
+        end
+      end
+    end
+  end
+
+  # Token elements should still preserve text + inline elements (mglyph,
+  # malignmark) — they are the legitimate `mixed_content` use case per
+  # MathML schema: token content is `(#PCDATA | mglyph | malignmark)*`.
+  describe "token elements (genuine mixed content)" do
+    include_context "with namespace declared"
+
+    [Mml::V3, Mml::V4].each do |version|
+      it "#{version}::Mi preserves inline malignmark inside text" do
+        input = "<math #{xmlns}><mi>x<malignmark/>y</mi></math>"
+        math = version.parse(input)
+        mi = math.mi_value.first
+        expect(mi.value).to eq(%w[x y])
+        expect(mi.malignmark_value).not_to be_empty
+      end
+
+      it "#{version}::Mo captures inline mglyph" do
+        input = %(<math #{xmlns}><mo>+<mglyph src="g.png" alt="g"/></mo></math>)
+        math = version.parse(input)
+        mo = math.mo_value.first
+        expect(mo.value).to eq(["+"])
+        expect(mo.mglyph_value.first.alt).to eq("g")
+      end
+
+      it "#{version}::Mtext preserves text and malignmark" do
+        input = "<math #{xmlns}><mtext>hello<malignmark/>world</mtext></math>"
+        math = version.parse(input)
+        mtext = math.mtext_value.first
+        expect(mtext.value).to eq(%w[hello world])
+        expect(mtext.malignmark_value).not_to be_empty
+      end
+
+      it "#{version}::Mn captures inline mglyph" do
+        input = %(<math #{xmlns}><mn>1<mglyph src="g.png" alt="g"/>2</mn></math>)
+        math = version.parse(input)
+        mn = math.mn_value.first
+        expect(mn.value).to eq(%w[1 2])
+        expect(mn.mglyph_value.first.alt).to eq("g")
+      end
+
+      it "#{version}::Ms captures inline malignmark" do
+        input = "<math #{xmlns}><ms>a<malignmark/>b</ms></math>"
+        math = version.parse(input)
+        ms = math.ms_value.first
+        expect(ms.value).to eq(%w[a b])
+        expect(ms.malignmark_value).not_to be_empty
+      end
+    end
+  end
+end
+# rubocop:enable RSpec/DescribeClass
diff --git a/spec/mml/v2/math_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v2/math_spec.rb
index 16a529d..6bf8770 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v2/math_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v2/math_spec.rb
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@
               "<mi>x</mi><mo>+</mo><mn>1</mn></math>"
       math = Mml::V2.parse(input)
       expect(math.mi_value.first.value).to eq(["x"])
-      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq("+")
+      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["+"])
       expect(math.mn_value.first.value).to eq(["1"])
     end
 
diff --git a/spec/mml/v2/mo_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v2/mo_spec.rb
index c511403..b1779f2 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v2/mo_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v2/mo_spec.rb
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<mo>∑</mo></math>"
       math = Mml::V2.parse(input)
-      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq("∑")
+      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["∑"])
     end
 
     it "preserves lspace attribute" do
diff --git a/spec/mml/v2/mtext_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v2/mtext_spec.rb
index 7539f9a..dca516b 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v2/mtext_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v2/mtext_spec.rb
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<mtext>some text</mtext></math>"
       math = Mml::V2.parse(input)
-      expect(math.mtext_value.first.value).to eq("some text")
+      expect(math.mtext_value.first.value).to eq(["some text"])
     end
   end
 end
diff --git a/spec/mml/v3/math_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v3/math_spec.rb
index 1e92e9e..b1f54e4 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v3/math_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v3/math_spec.rb
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@
               "<mi>x</mi><mo>+</mo><mn>1</mn></math>"
       math = Mml.parse(input)
       expect(math.mi_value.first.value).to eq(["x"])
-      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq("+")
+      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["+"])
       expect(math.mn_value.first.value).to eq(["1"])
     end
   end
diff --git a/spec/mml/v3/merror_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v3/merror_spec.rb
index b68612e..8897394 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v3/merror_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v3/merror_spec.rb
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
               "<merror><mtext>Error message</mtext></merror></math>"
       math = Mml.parse(input)
       expect(math.merror_value.first.mtext_value.first.value)
-        .to eq("Error message")
+        .to eq(["Error message"])
     end
 
     it "parses error with complex children" do
diff --git a/spec/mml/v3/mo_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v3/mo_spec.rb
index 5a3ef41..83fcfbc 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v3/mo_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v3/mo_spec.rb
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<mo>+</mo></math>"
       math = Mml.parse(input)
-      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq("+")
+      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["+"])
     end
 
     it "preserves form attribute" do
diff --git a/spec/mml/v3/mover_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v3/mover_spec.rb
index 626b787..f89328e 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v3/mover_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v3/mover_spec.rb
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<mover><mo>∫</mo><mi>b</mi></mover></math>"
       math = Mml.parse(input)
-      expect(math.mover_value.first.mo_value.first.value).to eq("∫")
+      expect(math.mover_value.first.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["∫"])
       expect(math.mover_value.first.mi_value.first.value).to eq(["b"])
     end
   end
diff --git a/spec/mml/v3/mtext_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v3/mtext_spec.rb
index 60bcc87..e35c009 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v3/mtext_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v3/mtext_spec.rb
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<mtext>sample text</mtext></math>"
       math = Mml.parse(input)
-      expect(math.mtext_value.first.value).to eq("sample text")
+      expect(math.mtext_value.first.value).to eq(["sample text"])
     end
 
     it "preserves mathsize attribute" do
diff --git a/spec/mml/v3/munder_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v3/munder_spec.rb
index 1a02425..608de40 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v3/munder_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v3/munder_spec.rb
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<munder><mo>∫</mo><mi>a</mi></munder></math>"
       math = Mml.parse(input)
-      expect(math.munder_value.first.mo_value.first.value).to eq("∫")
+      expect(math.munder_value.first.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["∫"])
       expect(math.munder_value.first.mi_value.first.value).to eq(["a"])
     end
   end
diff --git a/spec/mml/v3/munderover_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v3/munderover_spec.rb
index a4120c5..551c652 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v3/munderover_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v3/munderover_spec.rb
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<munderover><mo>∫</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>b</mi></munderover></math>"
       math = Mml.parse(input)
-      expect(math.munderover_value.first.mo_value.first.value).to eq("∫")
+      expect(math.munderover_value.first.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["∫"])
       expect(math.munderover_value.first.mi_value.first.value).to eq(["a"])
       expect(math.munderover_value.first.mi_value.last.value).to eq(["b"])
     end
diff --git a/spec/mml/v4/math_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v4/math_spec.rb
index ee09b37..b0b7d51 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v4/math_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v4/math_spec.rb
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<mi>x</mi><mo>+</mo><mn>1</mn></math>"
       math = Mml::V4.parse(input)
-      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq("+")
+      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["+"])
     end
 
     it "extracts mn child element" do
diff --git a/spec/mml/v4/mo_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v4/mo_spec.rb
index 3f44dc6..19004de 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v4/mo_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v4/mo_spec.rb
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@
     it "extracts operator value" do
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mo>+</mo></math>'
       math = Mml::V4.parse(input)
-      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq("+")
+      expect(math.mo_value.first.value).to eq(["+"])
     end
 
     it "preserves form attribute" do
diff --git a/spec/mml/v4/mtext_spec.rb b/spec/mml/v4/mtext_spec.rb
index cea2d2c..9920ae5 100644
--- a/spec/mml/v4/mtext_spec.rb
+++ b/spec/mml/v4/mtext_spec.rb
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
       input = '<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">' \
               "<mtext>sample text</mtext></math>"
       math = Mml::V4.parse(input)
-      expect(math.mtext_value.first.value).to eq("sample text")
+      expect(math.mtext_value.first.value).to eq(["sample text"])
     end
 
     it "preserves mathcolor attribute" do