refactor: change PoW difficulty to numeric target hash threshold

genesis.json

@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 {
   "chain_id": "minichain-default",
   "timestamp": 1716880000000,
-  "difficulty": 4,
+  "target": "0x0000FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF",
   "target_block_time": 10000,
   "alpha": 0.1,
   "initial_supply": 1500000000,

main.py

@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ def mine_and_process_block(chain, mempool, miner_pk):
         receipt_root=calculate_receipt_root(receipts),
         receipts=receipts,
         miner=miner_pk,
-        difficulty=chain.current_difficulty,
+        target=chain.current_target,
     )
 
     mined_block = mine_block(block)

minichain/block.py

@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ def __init__(
         previous_hash: str,
         transactions: Optional[Sequence[Transaction]] = None,
         timestamp: Optional[float] = None,
-        difficulty: Optional[int] = None,
+        target: Optional[int] = None,
         state_root: Optional[str] = None,
         receipt_root: Optional[str] = None,
         receipts: Optional[Sequence[Receipt]] = None,
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ def __init__(
             if timestamp is None
             else int(timestamp)
         )
-        self.difficulty: Optional[int] = difficulty
+        self.target: Optional[int] = target
         self.nonce: int = 0
         self.hash: Optional[str] = None
         self.state_root: Optional[str] = state_root
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ def to_header_dict(self):
             "state_root": self.state_root,
             "receipt_root": self.receipt_root,
             "timestamp": self.timestamp,
-            "difficulty": self.difficulty,
+            "target": hex(self.target) if self.target is not None else None,
             "nonce": self.nonce,
         }
         # Include miner in header only when present (optional field)
@@ -130,14 +130,12 @@ def from_dict(cls, payload: dict):
             for r_payload in payload.get("receipts", [])
         ]
 
-        # Safely extract and cast difficulty and timestamp if they exist
-        raw_diff = payload.get("difficulty")
-        if raw_diff is not None:
-            parsed_diff = int(raw_diff)
-            if parsed_diff > 256:
-                raise ValueError(f"Difficulty too large: {parsed_diff}")
+        # Safely extract and cast target and timestamp if they exist
+        raw_target = payload.get("target")
+        if raw_target is not None:
+            parsed_target = int(raw_target, 16) if isinstance(raw_target, str) else int(raw_target)
         else:
-            parsed_diff = None
+            parsed_target = None
 
         raw_ts = payload.get("timestamp")
         parsed_ts = int(raw_ts) if raw_ts is not None else None
@@ -146,7 +144,7 @@ def from_dict(cls, payload: dict):
             previous_hash=payload["previous_hash"],
             transactions=transactions,
             timestamp=parsed_ts,
-            difficulty=parsed_diff,
+            target=parsed_target,
             state_root=payload.get("state_root"),
             receipt_root=payload.get("receipt_root"),
             receipts=receipts,

minichain/chain.py

@@ -27,9 +27,11 @@ def validate_block_link_and_hash(previous_block, block):
     if block.hash != expected_hash:
         raise ValueError(f"invalid hash {block.hash}")
 
-    target = "0" * (block.difficulty or 1)
-    if not block.hash.startswith(target):
-        raise ValueError(f"invalid Proof of Work: hash {block.hash} does not satisfy difficulty {block.difficulty}")
+    from .network_config import MAX_TARGET
+    if not isinstance(block.target, int) or block.target <= 0 or block.target > MAX_TARGET:
+        raise ValueError(f"invalid target: {block.target}")
+    if int(block.hash, 16) >= block.target:
+        raise ValueError(f"invalid Proof of Work: hash {block.hash} does not satisfy target {block.target}")
 
     if block.timestamp <= previous_block.timestamp:
         raise ValueError(f"invalid timestamp: {block.timestamp} is not strictly greater than previous block timestamp {previous_block.timestamp}")
@@ -88,19 +90,27 @@ def _create_genesis_block(self, genesis_path):
         self.state.chain_id = self.chain_id
 
         timestamp = config.get("timestamp")
-        difficulty = config.get("difficulty")
+        raw_target = config.get("target")
+        if raw_target is not None:
+            self.current_target = int(raw_target, 16) if isinstance(raw_target, str) else int(raw_target)
+            from .network_config import MAX_TARGET
+            if not isinstance(self.current_target, int) or self.current_target <= 0 or self.current_target > MAX_TARGET:
+                logger.error("Genesis target out of bounds: %s", self.current_target)
+                sys.exit(1)
+        else:
+            from .network_config import MAX_TARGET
+            self.current_target = MAX_TARGET
 
         self.target_block_time = config.get("target_block_time", 10000)
         self.alpha = config.get("alpha", 0.1)
-        self.current_difficulty = difficulty
         self.avg_block_time = self.target_block_time
 
         genesis_block = Block(
             index=0,
             previous_hash="0",
             transactions=[],
             timestamp=timestamp,
-            difficulty=difficulty,
+            target=self.current_target,
             state_root=self.state.state_root(),
             receipt_root=None,
             receipts=[]
@@ -133,27 +143,28 @@ def last_block(self):
     def get_total_work(self, chain_list=None):
         """
         Calculates the cumulative PoW of a chain.
-        Work is proportional to 2^difficulty.
+        Work is inversely proportional to target.
         """
         if chain_list is None:
             with self._lock:
                 chain_list = self.chain
-        return sum(2 ** (block.difficulty or 1) for block in chain_list)
+        return sum((1 << 256) // (block.target or 1) for block in chain_list)
 
-    def _next_difficulty(self, difficulty, avg_block_time):
-        """Advance the EMA difficulty control after a block, returning the new value."""
+    def _next_target(self, target, avg_block_time):
+        """Advance the EMA target control after a block, returning the new value."""
+        from .network_config import MAX_TARGET, MIN_TARGET
         if avg_block_time > self.target_block_time:
-            return max(1, difficulty - 1)
+            return min(MAX_TARGET, target + 1)
         if avg_block_time < self.target_block_time:
-            return difficulty + 1
-        return difficulty
+            return max(MIN_TARGET, target - 1)
+        return target
 
-    def _apply_block(self, prev_block, block, state, difficulty, avg_block_time):
+    def _apply_block(self, prev_block, block, state, target, avg_block_time):
         """
         Canonical block-application pipeline shared by add_block and resolve_conflicts.
         Validates `block` against `prev_block` and applies its transactions to `state`
         (mutated in place). On any non-VALID status the caller must discard `state`.
-        Returns: (ValidationStatus, new_difficulty, new_avg_block_time)
+        Returns: (ValidationStatus, new_target, new_avg_block_time)
         """
         from .validators import ValidationStatus
 
@@ -162,18 +173,18 @@ def _apply_block(self, prev_block, block, state, difficulty, avg_block_time):
         except ValueError as exc:
             logger.warning("Block %s rejected: %s", block.index, exc)
             status = ValidationStatus.INVALID if "hash" in str(exc) else ValidationStatus.FAILED
-            return status, difficulty, avg_block_time
+            return status, target, avg_block_time
 
-        if block.difficulty != difficulty:
-            logger.warning("Block %s rejected: Invalid difficulty. Expected %s, got %s", block.index, difficulty, block.difficulty)
-            return ValidationStatus.INVALID, difficulty, avg_block_time
+        if block.target != target:
+            logger.warning("Block %s rejected: Invalid target. Expected %s, got %s", block.index, target, block.target)
+            return ValidationStatus.INVALID, target, avg_block_time
 
         receipts = []
         for tx in block.transactions:
             status, receipt = state.validate_and_apply_with_status(tx)
             if status != ValidationStatus.VALID:
                 logger.warning("Block %s rejected: Transaction failed validation", block.index)
-                return status, difficulty, avg_block_time
+                return status, target, avg_block_time
             receipts.append(receipt)
 
         total_fees = sum(getattr(r, 'gas_used', 0) * getattr(tx, 'fee_per_gas', 0) for r, tx in zip(receipts, block.transactions))
@@ -183,19 +194,19 @@ def _apply_block(self, prev_block, block, state, difficulty, avg_block_time):
         computed_receipt_root = calculate_receipt_root(receipts)
         if block.receipt_root != computed_receipt_root:
             logger.warning("Block %s rejected: Invalid receipt root. Expected %s, got %s", block.index, computed_receipt_root, block.receipt_root)
-            return ValidationStatus.INVALID, difficulty, avg_block_time
+            return ValidationStatus.INVALID, target, avg_block_time
 
         if [r.to_dict() for r in block.receipts] != [r.to_dict() for r in receipts]:
             logger.warning("Block %s rejected: Receipts payload mismatch", block.index)
-            return ValidationStatus.INVALID, difficulty, avg_block_time
+            return ValidationStatus.INVALID, target, avg_block_time
 
         computed_state_root = state.state_root()
         if block.state_root != computed_state_root:
             logger.warning("Block %s rejected: Invalid state root. Expected %s, got %s", block.index, computed_state_root, block.state_root)
-            return ValidationStatus.INVALID, difficulty, avg_block_time
+            return ValidationStatus.INVALID, target, avg_block_time
 
         new_avg = self.alpha * (block.timestamp - prev_block.timestamp) + (1 - self.alpha) * avg_block_time
-        return ValidationStatus.VALID, self._next_difficulty(difficulty, new_avg), new_avg
+        return ValidationStatus.VALID, self._next_target(target, new_avg), new_avg
 
     def add_block(self, block):
         """
@@ -207,17 +218,21 @@ def add_block(self, block):
         with self._lock:
             temp_state = self.state.copy()
             temp_state.chain_id = self.chain_id
-            status, new_difficulty, new_avg = self._apply_block(
-                self.last_block, block, temp_state, self.current_difficulty, self.avg_block_time
+            status, new_target, new_avg = self._apply_block(
+                self.last_block, block, temp_state, self.current_target, self.avg_block_time
             )
             if status != ValidationStatus.VALID:
                 return status
 
             # All transactions valid → commit state and append block
+            if hasattr(temp_state.accounts, 'commit'):
+                temp_state.accounts.commit()
+                temp_state.accounts = temp_state.accounts.backing
             self.state = temp_state
-            self.current_difficulty = new_difficulty
+            self.current_target = new_target
             self.avg_block_time = new_avg
             self.chain.append(block)
+
             return ValidationStatus.VALID
 
     def resolve_conflicts(self, new_chain_list) -> tuple[bool, list]:
@@ -264,13 +279,16 @@ def resolve_conflicts(self, new_chain_list) -> tuple[bool, list]:
             temp_state.chain_id = self.chain_id
             temp_state.restore(self._genesis_state_snapshot)
 
-            temp_difficulty = proposed_chain[0].difficulty
+            temp_target = proposed_chain[0].target
             temp_avg_block_time = self.target_block_time
 
             for i in range(1, len(proposed_chain)):
-                status, temp_difficulty, temp_avg_block_time = self._apply_block(
-                    proposed_chain[i - 1], proposed_chain[i], temp_state, temp_difficulty, temp_avg_block_time
+                status, temp_target, temp_avg_block_time = self._apply_block(
+                    proposed_chain[i - 1], proposed_chain[i], temp_state, temp_target, temp_avg_block_time
                 )
+                if hasattr(temp_state.accounts, 'commit'):
+                    temp_state.accounts.commit()
+                    temp_state.accounts = temp_state.accounts.backing
                 if status != ValidationStatus.VALID:
                     logger.warning("Reorg failed at block %s", proposed_chain[i].index)
                     return False, []
@@ -281,7 +299,8 @@ def resolve_conflicts(self, new_chain_list) -> tuple[bool, list]:
 
             self.chain = proposed_chain
             self.state = temp_state
-            self.current_difficulty = temp_difficulty
+            self.current_target = temp_target
             self.avg_block_time = temp_avg_block_time
+
             logger.info("Reorg successful! Switched to new chain tip: Block %s", self.last_block.index)
             return True, orphans

minichain/network_config.py

@@ -14,3 +14,6 @@
 MAX_FUTURE_BLOCK_TIME_MS = 15000  # Max allowed ms in the future for a block timestamp
 GAS_PER_BYTE = 10  # Cost per byte of state storage written
 MAX_CALL_DEPTH = 10  # Maximum depth for cross-contract calls
+MAX_TARGET = int("F" * 64, 16)
+MIN_TARGET = 1
+

minichain/node_config.py

@@ -14,3 +14,12 @@
 
 # Mining Config
 MINING_MAX_NONCE = 10_000_000 # Number of hashes to attempt before yielding the mining thread
+
+# Initial nonce range parameters (A and B).
+# Miners can configure these to create unique search ranges and avoid overlapping work.
+MINING_INITIAL_NONCE_MIN = 0
+
+# Recommended upper limit: 2**32 - 1 (4,294,967,295).
+# Keeping the upper limit around 32-bits ensures the nonce string in the JSON block
+# doesn't become unnecessarily large, and avoids cross-language serialization issues.
+MINING_INITIAL_NONCE_MAX = 2**32 - 1

minichain/pow.py

@@ -1,6 +1,11 @@
 import time
+import random
 from .serialization import canonical_json_hash
-from .node_config import MINING_MAX_NONCE
+from .node_config import (
+    MINING_MAX_NONCE,
+    MINING_INITIAL_NONCE_MIN,
+    MINING_INITIAL_NONCE_MAX,
+)
 
 
 class MiningExceededError(Exception):
@@ -14,7 +19,7 @@ def calculate_hash(block_dict):
 
 def mine_block(
     block,
-    difficulty=None,
+    target=None,
     max_nonce=None,
     timeout_seconds=None,
     logger=None,
@@ -23,26 +28,27 @@ def mine_block(
     """Mines a block using Proof-of-Work without mutating input block until success."""
     max_nonce = max_nonce if max_nonce is not None else MINING_MAX_NONCE
 
-    difficulty = difficulty if difficulty is not None else block.difficulty
-    if not isinstance(difficulty, int) or difficulty <= 0:
-        raise ValueError("Difficulty must be a positive integer.")
+    target = target if target is not None else block.target
+    if not isinstance(target, int) or target <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("Target must be a positive integer.")
+    block.target = target
 
-    target = "0" * difficulty
-    local_nonce = 0
+    start_nonce = random.randint(MINING_INITIAL_NONCE_MIN, MINING_INITIAL_NONCE_MAX)
+    local_nonce = start_nonce
     header_dict = block.to_header_dict() # Construct header dict once outside loop
     start_time = time.monotonic()
 
     if logger:
         logger.info(
-            "Mining block %s (Difficulty: %s)",
+            "Mining block %s (Target: %s)",
             block.index,
-            difficulty,
+            target,
         )
 
     while True:
 
         # Enforce max_nonce limit before hashing
-        if local_nonce >= max_nonce:
+        if local_nonce - start_nonce >= max_nonce:
             if logger:
                 logger.warning("Max nonce exceeded during mining.")
             raise MiningExceededError("Mining failed: max_nonce exceeded")
@@ -56,8 +62,8 @@ def mine_block(
         header_dict["nonce"] = local_nonce
         block_hash = calculate_hash(header_dict)
 
-        # Check difficulty target
-        if block_hash.startswith(target):
+        # Check target
+        if int(block_hash, 16) < target:
             block.nonce = local_nonce  # Assign only on success
             block.hash = block_hash
             if logger:

tests/test_core.py

@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ def test_transaction_fee(self):
             index=1,
             previous_hash="0",
             transactions=[tx],
-            difficulty=1,
+            target=int("F"*64, 16),
             state_root=self.state.state_root(),
             receipt_root=calculate_receipt_root([receipt]),
             receipts=[receipt],

tests/test_persistence.py

@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ def _chain_with_tx(self):
             index=1,
             previous_hash=bc.last_block.hash,
             transactions=[tx],
-            difficulty=bc.current_difficulty,
+            target=bc.current_target,
             state_root=temp_state.state_root(),
             receipt_root=calculate_receipt_root([receipt]),
             receipts=[receipt],
@@ -245,7 +245,7 @@ def test_loaded_chain_can_add_new_block(self):
             index=len(restored.chain),
             previous_hash=restored.last_block.hash,
             transactions=[tx2],
-            difficulty=restored.current_difficulty,
+            target=restored.current_target,
             state_root=temp_state.state_root(),
             receipt_root=calculate_receipt_root([receipt2]),
             receipts=[receipt2],